刘晓平 建筑:双语阅读：《宣传手段》Propaganda Techniques

我们总是被裹挟在各种各样的宣传中，从战争时期的宣传到广告和政治宣传。好，这些手段已经被人们发现和总结出来。同时，对付这些宣传手段的方法也很简单：独立思考，收集更多信息，将所宣传的那些事物本身的价值和那些宣传手段提供给我们的其他因素分离开。

(图片下方小字：和放在我们面前的相比，那些在我们身前和身后的都不过是些小事）
断言（Assertion）
断言在广告和现代宣传中经常被使用。断言是指被当作事实呈现出来的，热情洋溢或者精力充沛地作出的声明，尽管事实上可能并不是真的。作出断言的人通常暗示这种声明无需解释或者证实，而应该仅仅需要不加质疑地被接受。尽管战争时期宣传中很少有使用断言的例子，这种手段在现代广告宣传中很常见。任何时候，当商家在广告中宣称他们的产品是最好的而没有提供任何证据的时候，他们就在使用断言这种手段。理想的情形下，受众会简单地同意这些声明而不去搜寻更多的信息或者进行论证。尽管断言通常容易被看出来，这种手段却经常是一种危险的宣传手段，因为它们通常包括虚假和谎言。
挟众宣传（Bandwagon，又称乐队花车宣传）
挟众宣传是一种在战争期间和和平时期都最惯常的手段，并且在现代广告宣传中也扮演重要角色。挟众宣传也是宣传分析学院（Institute for Propaganda Analysis）在1938年鉴别出的其中主要宣传手段之一。挟众宣传吸引接受者去跟从人群，去加入人群，因为别人也这样做。挟众宣传本质上是试图说服接受者相信一方是正在胜利的一方，因为更多的人已经加入了他们。他们想让接受者相信既然那么多人都已经加入了，胜利是不可避免的而失败是不可能的。由于通常的人总是想和胜利者站在一头，他/她会感觉不得不加入进来。但是，在现代宣传中，挟众宣传又有了一个新的方式。接收者需要被宣传说服，从而相信由于所有的其他人都在做这件事，如果他们不做，他们就会被排除在外。从效果上说，这是另外一种挟众宣传的反面，但通常可以收到同样的结果。挟众宣传的接受者被裹挟着加入，因为所有其他人都这样做。当面对挟众宣传时，我们应该衡量加入的好处和坏处，而不受已经加入的人的数量的影响，并且，如同面对大多数宣传手段时一样，我们应该寻求更多信息。
洗牌法（Card stacking）
洗牌法，或称选择性遗漏，也是宣传分析学院鉴别出来的七种宣传手段之一。这种手段是指仅仅展示那些对某种理念或者提议有利的信息而忽略那些与之抵触的信息。洗牌法在几乎所有形式的宣传中都会使用，并且在用来劝说大众的时候非常有效。尽管大部分在洗牌法的运用中所展示的信息是真实的，这种方法的危险在于它忽略了重要的信息。对付洗牌法的最好的途径就是收集更多的信息。
粉饰法（Glittering Generalities）：
粉饰法是宣传分析学院在1938年鉴别出的七种主要宣传手段之一。这种方法在政治活动和政治宣传中被经常运用。粉饰指的是对于个体接收者来说有着不同的积极含义的词，而这些词被连接到具有很高价值的概念上。当这些词被运用的时候，会促使人们不假思索地接受，仅仅因为那样一个重要的概念被牵扯进来。例如，当一个人被要求为了“捍卫民主”而做某件事情，他们很可能会同意。他们对于民主这个词有很强的认同感，因为这个词被连接到一个他们所珍视的概念。被经常用做粉饰词的包括荣誉，光荣，爱国，还有，尤其是在美国，自由。当遇到这些粉饰词的时候，我们特别应该将那些所要表达的想法和这些词分离开去，而考虑这些想法的实际价值。
两害之轻（Lesser of Two Evils）：
两害之轻这种手段将一种想法或者提议展示为最不令人厌恶的选择而试图使我们接受它。这种手段经常在战争时期使用，来说服人们接受牺牲的必要或者为困难的决定制造理由。这种手段经常伴随着对敌对国家或者政治团体的指责。一个想法或者提议经常被描绘为唯一的选择或者途径。当遇到这种手段时，接受者应当将那些提议和那些被拿出来比较的提议分开，进行单独考虑。
扣帽子（Name Calling）：
扣帽子经常在政治和战争时期的场合被使用，但很少用于广告。这是另一种宣传分析学院鉴别出的七种主要手段之一。这种手段运用含有负面含义的贬损的语言或者词汇来描绘敌人。这种宣传手段试图给一个目标贴上某种公众所憎恶的标签，从而在公众中激起对该目标偏见。通常，扣帽子这种手段会以挖苦和讥讽的方式运用，经常在政治漫画和文章中出现。当遇到运用扣帽子手段的宣传时，我们应该试图将我们因为那些“帽子”所引起的情感和我们因为那些实际的想法和建议所引起的情感分开。
指出敌人（Pinpointing the Enemy）：
指出敌人这种手段在战争时期被极端地使用，在政治宣传攻势和辩论的时候也经常用。这种手段试图将一个特定团体或者个人表现为敌人，从而简化一种复杂的情况。尽管还有其他因素牵扯在其中，这种手段敦促接受者简单地用非此即彼的对和错来看待一种情况。当遇到这种手段的时候，接受者应该试图考虑所有和这种情况相关的其他因素。就像面对所有宣传手段一样，接受者应该试图收集关于话题的更多信息。这类宣传手段影响一个全面了解信息的人要困难得多。
平民百姓（Plain Folks）：
平民百姓宣传手段是另一种被宣传分析学院鉴别总结出来的七种主要宣传手段之一。宣传者采用平民百姓手段来试图使公众相信他的观点反应了那些普通人的观点，而他们在为普通人谋取福利。宣传者会经常试图用一些特别受众的口吻，以及用一些惯用语和笑话。同样，宣传者，尤其是在演讲的时候，会试图通过不完美的发音，结巴，有限的词汇量，等等，来增强这种印象。像这样的错误会有助于加强一种诚恳和未经准备的印象。这种手段在和上面提到的粉饰法一起运用的时候最有效，来试图说服公众，宣传者对于那些他们所珍视的观点的态度和他们是一样的，因而更加有说服力。当遇到这种手段的时候，接受者应当将宣传者个人的品性和宣传者所宣传的那些想法和提议分别对待。
简化（成见）法（Simplification (Stereotyping)）：
简化法和指出敌人法非常相像，在于这种手段经常将一种复杂的情况简化成一种非此即彼的善和恶的选择。这种手段在诱导受教育程度不高的听众时经常有用。当面对这种手段的时候，检验其他因素和想法或者提议的部分通常很有益处，而且，就像对待其他宣传方式一样，获取更多信息必不可少。
英文原文阅读：
Propaganda Techniques
Assertion:
Assertion is commonly used in advertising and modern propaganda. An assertion is an enthusiastic or energetic statement presented as a fact, although it is not necessarily true. They often imply that the statement requires no explanation or back up, but that it should merely be accepted without question. Examples of assertion, although somewhat scarce in wartime propaganda, can be found often in modern advertising propaganda. Any time an advertiser states that their product is the best without providing evidence for this, they are using an assertion. The subject, ideally, should simply agree to the statement without searching for additional information or reasoning. Assertions, although usually simple to spot, are often dangerous forms of propaganda because they often include falsehoods or lies.
Bandwagon:
Bandwagon is one of the most common techniques in both wartime and peacetime and plays an important part in modern advertising. Bandwagon is also one of the seven main propaganda techniques identified by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis in 1938. Bandwagon is an appeal to the subject to follow the crowd, to join in because others are doing so as well. Bandwagon propaganda is, essentially, trying to convince the subject that one side is the winning side, because more people have joined it. The subject is meant to believe that since so many people have joined, that victory is inevitable and defeat impossible. Since the average person always wants to be on the winning side, he or she is compelled to join in. However, in modern propaganda, bandwagon has taken a new twist. The subject is to be convinced by the propaganda that since everyone else is doing it, they will be left out if they do not. This is, effectively, the opposite of the other type of bandwagon, but usually provokes the same results. Subjects of bandwagon are compelled to join in because everyone else is doing so as well. When confronted with bandwagon propaganda, we should weigh the pros and cons of joining in independently from the amount of people who have already joined, and, as with most types of propaganda, we should seek more information.
Card stacking:
Card stacking, or selective omission, is one of the seven techniques identified by the IPA, or Institute for Propaganda Analysis. It involves only presenting information that is positive to an idea or proposal and omitting information contrary to it. Card stacking is used in almost all forms of propaganda, and is extremely effective in convincing the public. Although the majority of information presented by the card stacking approach is true, it is dangerous because it omits important information. The best way to deal with card stacking is to get more information.
Glittering Generalities:
Glittering generalities was one of the seven main propaganda techniques identified by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis in 1938. It also occurs very often in politics and political propaganda. Glittering generalities are words that have different positive meaning for individual subjects, but are linked to highly valued concepts. When these words are used, they demand approval without thinking, simply because such an important concept is involved. For example, when a person is asked to do something in "defense of democracy" they are more likely to agree. The concept of democracy has a positive connotation to them because it is linked to a concept that they value. Words often used as glittering generalities are honor, glory, love of country, and especially in the United States, freedom. When coming across with glittering generalities, we should especially consider the merits of the idea itself when separated from specific words.
Lesser of Two Evils:
The "lesser of two evils" technique tries to convince us of an idea or proposal by presenting it as the least offensive option. This technique is often implemented during wartime to convince people of the need for sacrifices or to justify difficult decisions. This technique is often accompanied by adding blame on an enemy country or political group. One idea or proposal is often depicted as one of the only options or paths. When confronted with this technique, the subject should consider the value of any proposal independently of those it is being compared with.
Name Calling:
Name calling occurs often in politics and wartime scenarios, but very seldom in advertising. It is another of the seven main techniques designated by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis. It is the use of derogatory language or words that carry a negative connotation when describing an enemy. The propaganda attempts to arouse prejudice among the public by labeling the target something that the public dislikes. Often, name calling is employed using sarcasm and ridicule, and shows up often in political cartoons or writings. When examining name calling propaganda, we should attempt to separate our feelings about the name and our feelings about the actual idea or proposal.
Pinpointing the Enemy:
Pinpointing the enemy is used extremely often during wartime, and also in political campaigns and debates. This is an attempt to simplify a complex situation by presenting one specific group or person as the enemy. Although there may be other factors involved the subject is urged to simply view the situation in terms of clear-cut right and wrong. When coming in contact with this technique, the subject should attempt to consider all other factors tied into the situation. As with almost all propaganda techniques, the subject should attempt to find more information on the topic. An informed person is much less susceptible to this sort of propaganda.
Plain Folks:
The plain folks propaganda technique was another of the seven main techniques identified by the IPA, or Institute for Propaganda Analysis. The plain folks device is an attempt by the propagandist to convince the public that his views reflect those of the common person and that they are also working for the benefit of the common person. The propagandist will often attempt to use the accent of a specific audience as well as using specific idioms or jokes. Also, the propagandist, especially during speeches, may attempt to increase the illusion through imperfect pronunciation, stuttering, and a more limited vocabulary. Errors such as these help add to the impression of sincerity and spontaneity. This technique is usually most effective when used with glittering generalities, in an attempt to convince the public that the propagandist views about highly valued ideas are similar to their own and therefore more valid. When confronted by this type of propaganda, the subject should consider the proposals and ideas separately from the personality of the presenter.
Simplification (Stereotyping):
Simplification is extremely similar to pinpointing the enemy, in that it often reduces a complex situation to a clear-cut choice involving good and evil. This technique is often useful in swaying uneducated audiences. When faced with simplification, it is often useful to examine other factors and pieces of the proposal or idea, and, as with all other forms of propaganda, it is essential to get more information.
Testimonials:
Testimonials are another of the seven main forms of propaganda identified by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis. Testimonials are quotations or endorsements, in or out of context, which attempt to connect a famous or respectable person with a product or item. Testimonials are very closely connected to the transfer technique, in that an attempt is made to connect an agreeable person to another item. Testimonials are often used in advertising and political campaigns. When coming across testimonials, the subject should consider the merits of the item or proposal independently of the person of organization giving the testimonial.
Transfer:
Transfer is another of the seven main propaganda terms first used by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis in 1938. Transfer is often used in politics and during wartime. It is an attempt to make the subject view a certain item in the same way as they view another item, to link the two in the subjects mind. Although this technique is often used to transfer negative feelings for one object to another, it can also be used in positive ways. By linking an item to something the subject respects or enjoys, positive feelings can be generated for it. However, in politics, transfer is most often used to transfer blame or bad feelings from one politician to another of his friends or party members, or even to the party itself. When confronted with propaganda using the transfer technique, we should question the merits or problems of the proposal or idea independently of convictions about other objects or proposals.
Bibliography
The Science of Modern Propaganda.http://www.propaganda101.com/ Last Visited: August, 2001.
Lee, Alfred McLung; Lee, Elizabeth Bryan. Propaganda Analysis. http://carmen.artsci.washington.edu/(subdirectory). Last Visited: August, 2001.
Dorje, Carl. Propaganda Techniques.http://serendipity.magnet.ch/more/propagan.html Last Visited: August, 2001.

证词法（Testimonials）：
证词法是另一种被宣传分析学院鉴别总结出的七种主要宣传手段之一。证词是指名言或者赞同的话，不管是否仍然和当下的情况密切相关，这些话试图将一位名人或者德高望重者和一件产品或者项目联系在一起。证词法和移花接木法非常紧密地连接在一起，试图将一位令人接受的人和另外一个事物联系在一起。证词法经常用于广告和政治攻势。当遇到这种手段的时候，接受者应当将事物或者提议与为这些事物或者提议提供证词的人或者组织区分开来，单独考虑。
移花接木法（Transfer）：
移花接木法是宣传分析学院在1938年鉴别出来的七种主要宣传手段的另外一种。移花接木法经常用于政治和战争时期。这种手段试图使接受者用他们看待一个事物的方式同样地看待另外一个事物，在思想中将两者联系起来。尽管经常地被用来将负面感觉从一个事物上传递到另一个事物上，这种手段也可以被用于正面的方式。将一个事物联系到接受者尊重或者喜爱的另外一个事物，接受者就会产生积极的感觉。但是，在政治中，移花接木法经常被用来将指责或者负面感情从一个政治家身上转嫁到另一个政治家，他的朋友们或者政党成员身上，或者政党本身。当面对这种手段进行的宣传时，我们应该将我们要考虑的问题，提议或者想法的好处和坏处与其他事物或者提议的好坏区分开来看待。