Stopping!!!系列:怎样写好research proposal

文章作者Paul T. P. Wong,Ph.D., C.Psych. (Research Director, Graduate Program in CounsellingPsychology. Trinity Western University Langley, BC, Canada). 题为：How to Write a Research Proposal. 全文转载如下：

Most students and beginning researchers do not fully understand what aresearch proposal means, nor do they understand its importance. To putit bluntly, one’s research is only as a good as one’s proposal. Anill-conceived proposal dooms the project even if it somehow gets throughthe Thesis Supervisory Committee. A high quality proposal, on the otherhand, not only promises success for the project, but also impressesyour Thesis Committee about your potential as a researcher.

A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have aworthwhile research project and that you have the competence and thework-plan to complete it. Generally, a research proposal should containall the key elements involved in the research process and includesufficient information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.

Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, allresearch proposals must address the following questions: What you planto accomplish, why you want to do it and how you are going to do it.

The proposal should have sufficient information to convince yourreaders that you have an important research idea, that you have a goodgrasp of the relevant literature and the major issues, and that yourmethodology is sound.

The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the qualityof your proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposalwriting. A good research project may run the risk of rejection simplybecause the proposal is poorly written. Therefore, it pays if yourwriting is coherent, clear and compelling.

This paper focuses on proposal writing rather than on the development of research ideas.

Title:

It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, “Aninvestigation of . . .” could be omitted. Often titles are stated interms of a functional relationship, because such titles clearly indicatethe independent and dependent variables. However, if possible, think ofan informative but catchy title. An effective title not only pricks thereader’s interest, but also predisposes him/her favourably towards theproposal.

Abstract:

It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should includethe research question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (ifany), the method and the main findings. Descriptions of the method mayinclude the design, procedures, the sample and any instruments that willbe used.

Introduction:

The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessarybackground or context for your research problem. How to frame theresearch problem is perhaps the biggest problem in proposal writing.

If the research problem is framed in the context of a general,rambling literature review, then the research question may appeartrivial and uninteresting. However, if the same question is placed inthe context of a very focused and current research area, itssignificance will become evident.

Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how to frame yourresearch question just as there is no prescription on how to write aninteresting and informative opening paragraph. A lot depends on yourcreativity, your ability to think clearly and the depth of yourunderstanding of problem areas.

However, try to place your research question in the context of eithera current “hot” area, or an older area that remains viable. Secondly,you need to provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop.Thirdly, provide the contemporary context in which your proposedresearch question occupies the central stage. Finally, identify “keyplayers” and refer to the most relevant and representative publications.In short, try to paint your research question in broad brushes and atthe same time bring out its significance.

The introduction typically begins with a general statement of theproblem area, with a focus on a specific research problem, to befollowed by the rational or justification for the proposed study. Theintroduction generally covers the following elements:

1. State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study.
2. Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to show its necessity and importance.
3. Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing.
4. Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research.
5. Identify the key independent and dependent variables of yourexperiment. Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study.
6. State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory orphenomenological research, you may not have any hypotheses. (Please donot confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null hypothesis.)
7. Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.
8. Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)

Literature Review:

Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introductionsection. However, most professors prefer a separate section, whichallows a more thorough review of the literature.

The literature review serves several important functions:

1. Ensures that you are not “reinventing the wheel”.
2. Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.
3. Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.
4. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your research question.
5. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.
6. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
7. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for your research.
8. Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make asignificant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e.,resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in theliterature).

Most students’ literature reviews suffer from the following problems:

* Lacking organization and structure
* Lacking focus, unity and coherence
* Being repetitive and verbose
* Failing to cite influential papers
* Failing to keep up with recent developments
* Failing to critically evaluate cited papers
* Citing irrelevant or trivial references
* Depending too much on secondary sources

Your scholarship and research competence will be questioned if any of the above applies to your proposal.

There are different ways to organize your literature review. Make useof subheadings to bring order and coherence to your review. Forexample, having established the importance of your research area and itscurrent state of development, you may devote several subsections onrelated issues as: theoretical models, measuring instruments,cross-cultural and gender differences, etc.

It is also helpful to keep in mind that you are telling a story to anaudience. Try to tell it in a stimulating and engaging manner. Do notbore them, because it may lead to rejection of your worthy proposal.(Remember: Professors and scientists are human beings too.)

Methods:

The Method section is very important because it tells your ResearchCommittee how you plan to tackle your research problem. It will provideyour work plan and describe the activities necessary for the completionof your project.

The guiding principle for writing the Method section is that itshould contain sufficient information for the reader to determinewhether methodology is sound. Some even argue that a good proposalshould contain sufficient details for another qualified researcher toimplement the study.

You need to demonstrate your knowledge of alternative methods andmake the case that your approach is the most appropriate and most validway to address your research question.

Please note that your research question may be best answered byqualitative research. However, since most mainstream psychologists arestill biased against qualitative research, especially thephenomenological variety, you may need to justify your qualitativemethod.

Furthermore, since there are no well-established and widely acceptedcanons in qualitative analysis, your method section needs to be moreelaborate than what is required for traditional quantitative research.More importantly, the data collection process in qualitative researchhas a far greater impact on the results as compared to quantitativeresearch. That is another reason for greater care in describing how youwill collect and analyze your data. (How to write the Method section forqualitative research is a topic for another paper.)

For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following sections:

1. Design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design do you choose?
2. Subjects or participants – Who will take part in your study ? What kind of sampling procedure do you use?
3. Instruments – What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires doyou use? Why do you choose them? Are they valid and reliable?
4. Procedure – How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved? How long does it take?

Results:

Obviously you do not have results at the proposal stage. However, youneed to have some idea about what kind of data you will be collecting,and what statistical procedures will be used in order to answer yourresearch question or test you hypothesis.

Discussion:

It is important to convince your reader of the potential impact ofyour proposed research. You need to communicate a sense of enthusiasmand confidence without exaggerating the merits of your proposal. That iswhy you also need to mention the limitations and weaknesses of theproposed research, which may be justified by time and financialconstraints as well as by the early developmental stage of your researcharea.

Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing

1. Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question.
2. Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research.
3. Failure to cite landmark studies.
4. Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other researchers.
5. Failure to stay focused on the research question.
6. Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
7. Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.
8. Too much rambling — going “all over the map” without a clear sense ofdirection. (The best proposals move forward with ease and grace like aseamless river.)
9. Too many citation lapses and incorrect references.
10. Too long or too short.
11. Failing to follow the APA style.
12. Slopping writing.

下面是来自其他一些学术从业者关于如何写proposal的意见：

• Writing Research Proposals, Drew University On-line resources for writers.
• Guide to Writing a Research Proposal, University of Technology, Sydney. (A research proposal is required for admission to the program.)
• Beginners Guide to the Research Proposal, University of Calgary Centre for Advancement of Health.
• The Art of Writing Proposals: Some Candid Suggestions for Applicants to Social Science Research Council Competitions, Adam Przeworski and Frank Salomon.
• The Elements of a Proposal, Frank Pajares, Emory University.

以及，关于如何写学位论文proposal的指导（Dissertation Proposal Writing and some strategies for completing the dissertation）

• Dissertation Proposal Workshop, Institute of International Studies, UC-Berkeley.
• Writing and Presenting your Thesis or Dissertation , LearningAssociates.net.
• Dissertation/Project Hints: Proposal Writing, Hazel Hall, School of Computing, Napier University, Edinburgh, UK.
• Writing Theses and Dissertations, Claremont Graduate University Writing Center.