手机怎么调整图片像素:Effect of Resuspension on the Release of Heav...

Keywords:

• Acid volatile sulfide;
• Heavy metals;
• Resuspension;
• Sediment;
• Water quality

Abstract

Two types of river sediments with contrasting characteristics (anoxic or oxic) were resuspended and the release of heavy metals and changes in water chemistry were investigated. During resuspension of the anoxic sediment, the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration and redox potential of the water layer decreased abruptly within the first 1?min, followed by increases toward the end of the resuspension period. Heavy metals were released rapidly in the first 6?h, probably due to the oxidation of acid volatile sulfide (AVS) of the anoxic sediment, and then the aqueous phase concentrations of the heavy metals decreased due to resorption onto the sediment until the 12-h point. During resuspension of the oxic sediment, the DO concentration and redox potential remained relatively constant in the oxic ranges. The heavy metals were released from the oxic sediment gradually during a 24-h resuspension period. The temporal maximum concentrations of Ni, Cu, Zn, and Cd in the aqueous phases in both experiments frequently exceeded the USEPA water quality criteria or the water quality guidelines of Australia and New Zealand. This suggests that a resuspension event could bring about temporal water quality deterioration in the two sediment environments.

Introduction

Contaminated river sediment is a widespread problem with potential to threaten the health and integrity of river environments. Anthropogenic activities and weathering/erosion of the earth are responsible for the problems associated with sediments, with toxic heavy metals being an important group of contaminants 1–3. Heavy metals in sediments such as copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), and nickel (Ni) can be toxic to benthic animals 4 and can potentially be accumulated by these animals 5, 6. It is difficult to predict the bioaccumulation potential of heavy metals in benthic animals and their toxicities using total concentrations of heavy metals in sediments. It is now well known that speciation of heavy metals in sediments is a critical factor in assessing the potential environmental impacts of heavy metals 7.

Sulfides are considered the predominant solid phases controlling the concentration of heavy metals in anoxic sediments 8, 9. In particular, the measurement of acid volatile sulfide (AVS) content of sediments has been applied to bioavailability assessment and to prediction of the toxicological effects of heavy metals 10–12, because AVS in sediments can readily react with cationic metals to form insoluble metal sulfides 13, 14. However, the metal sulfides can be oxidatively released during mixing or resuspension of the anoxic sediments. Simultaneously extractable metals (SEM) that are also extracted during 1?M HCl extraction of AVS from the sediment can be used as surrogates for bioavailable fractions of heavy metals 9.

The toxicity and thus bioavailability of heavy metals in sediments depend to a large extent on their binding forms. Heavy metals adsorbed onto the surfaces of clay, silt, and sand can be released by ion exchange reactions, in contrast to the much stronger organic and sulfide fraction metals and the metals sequestrated in the lithogenic phase of the sediment. These different binding forms of heavy metals, which are typically evaluated by sequential extraction procedures (SEP) 15, may show large variations under different environmental conditions such as changes in sediment pH and in sediment redox conditions 6, 16, 17.

The pH and redox conditions of the sediments are frequently influenced by resuspension events, which can be induced by physical disturbances to the sediments, such as strong river currents and sediment dredging, or by the introduction of oxic waters to the sediments by burrowing organisms. While the leaching behavior of heavy metals in oxic and anoxic sediments may, in principle, govern dissolved metal concentrations, of much greater significance is the potential for oxidative release that might occur during resuspension of anoxic sediments 18–20. Changes in the binding forms of heavy metals can make them potentially more bioavailable and leachable during the sediment resuspension periods.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of resuspension on the release and speciation of heavy metals in river sediments and on the changes in water chemistry. In particular, we sought to investigate (i) the binding fractions of heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Pb, Ni, and Zn), the contents of SEM, AVS, and chromium reducible sulfides (CRS) in the oxic and anoxic sediments in Nakdong River, Korea, and (ii) the effect of resuspension on the release characteristics of the heavy metals and the changes in speciation of sulfur and heavy metals in the sediments.

Materials and methods

Sediment sampling

Sediment samples (20?kg, 5–10?cm deep) were collected in December 2006 from Namji and Gupo points, respectively, which are situated in the lower reaches of Nakdong River, Korea. The sediments at the two points have distinctive/contrasting characteristics such as differences in the degree of contamination with heavy metals and different oxygen conditions 21. Based on prolonged monitoring carried out by the authors, the Namji sediment was expected to exhibit low concentrations of heavy metals and AVS, whereas the Gupo sediment was supposed to have high concentrations of heavy metals and AVS.

Sediment samples were acquired using a 0.3-m² van Veen grab. The samples were then transferred to plastic bottles (8?cm diameter, 15?cm length). To minimize oxidation artifacts of the samples, all manipulations of the sediments (e.g., mixing and equilibration) were performed in a N₂-filled portable glove box and the samples were transported on ice under an inert (N₂) atmosphere.

Characterization of sediments

To remove the oxidized layer of the sediments, the top 5?cm of each sample was discarded. The distribution of sand, silt, and clay in the sediments was determined using an Elzone model 180xy particle size analyzer (Micromeritics, Norcross, GA, USA). The moisture content of the sediments was determined by drying at 110°C. Total organic carbon was determined by ignition loss at 450°C. Analysis of AVS and SEM largely followed the method of Allen et al. 22. The CRS was extracted from the samples using the method proposed by Canfield et al. 23. Fractionation of the heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Pb, Zn, and Ni) was carried out using the SEP 7. The reagents and sequential extraction steps used in the procedures are summarized in Tab. 1. Total amounts of heavy metals are defined as a total of the five fractionation phases (exchangeable, carbonate, reducible, organic/sulfide, and residual).

Sediment resuspension experiments

A modified particle entrainment simulator (PES) by Tsai and Lick 24 was used to bring about resuspension of the sediment samples, which was intended to simulate disturbances to the sediment such as heavy rain, typhoon, and dredging (Fig. 1). Wet sediment samples (250?g) from the Namji and Gupo points, respectively, were transferred to 6-L reactors containing 5?L of deionized water and then resuspended at 120?rpm for 96?h (5760?min).

Figure 1. Schematic of the sediment resuspension simulator.

The aqueous phase samples in the water columns of the resuspended sediments were investigated for the variations in pH; oxidation reduction potential (ORP); concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO), , and heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Pb, Zn, and Ni). Measurements of pH, DO, and ORP were made immediately following the initiation of resuspension. Aqueous samples for the heavy metals and measurements were centrifuged at 3000?rpm for 15?min after they were collected from the reactors. The supernatants for the heavy metals analyses were then acidified with 65% HNO₃ to pH?

Analytical procedure and quality control

All glassware and plasticware were cleaned by soaking in 2% HNO₃ v/v for 48?h, followed by a 12-h soak and repeated rinses in deionized water from a Barnstead Nanopure Diamond water system (Barnstead International, Dubuque, USA). All chemicals were of ACS reagent grade or had equivalent analytical purities. pH and ORP measurements were made using a combination pH probe (9157 BN model, Orion Res., Boston, USA) and an ORP probe (9179 BN model, Orion Res., Boston, USA), respectively, which were calibrated by the manufacturer-recommended procedures. DO was measured using an YSI 550 DO meter (YSI Inc., Yellow Springs, USA), calibrated by the manufacturer-recommended procedures.

The concentrations of heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Pb, Zn, and Ni) in the extractants were determined by either graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (Varian, SpectrAA 220FS, Australia) or inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (Spectro, Flame Modula S, Germany). Aqueous samples were analyzed for heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Pb, Zn, and Ni) by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (Perkin Elmer, Elan DRC-e, USA). Duplicate samples were sacrificed for the analyses of heavy metals, along with matrix spikes, to assess the precision and accuracy of the analytical work. Concentrations of heavy metals from the duplicate samples were within 5% relative deviation, while the recoveries for the matrix spike additions were within 15% of the calculated values. The recoveries of heavy metals for the calculated National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) standard reference materials (SRM) and National Research Council (NRC)-certified reference materials (CRM) in this study ranged between 85 and 115%. To check the reliability of the SEP, the concentrations of total heavy metals obtained by the SEP were compared with those obtained by the HNO₃–HClO₄–HF digestion method for two random sediment samples, which were NIST SRM and NRC CRM. A maximum difference of 11% (usually <3%) was found between the values obtained by the two methods in the Cu, Cd, Pb, Ni, and Zn analyses.

Results and discussion

Sediment properties

The properties of the two sediment samples are summarized in Tab. 2. The two samples had very different physical and chemical characteristics. The Namji sediment was composed of mostly sand (98%), whereas the Gupo sediment contained substantial amounts of fine particles (21% of silt/clay). Concentrations of the major contamination indicators such as AVS, CRS, ΣSEM, TOC, and total metals concentrations of the Gupo sediment are higher than those of the Namji sediment. Because AVS concentrations of typical anoxic sediments range between 40 and 212?μmol/g 25–27, the Gupo sediment is considered anoxic. The results for AVS and ΣSEM hint at the leaching potential of the heavy metals in the two sediments. In the reducing environment, AVS is presumed to be a major binding phase for the heavy metals 28. Thus, when the AVS concentration is higher than ΣSEM, heavy metals in the sediment tend to be stabilized by forming precipitates such as CuS, PbS, CdS, ZnS, and NiS. This is the case for the Gupo sediment because the AVS concentration is much higher than the concentration for ΣSEM. On the other hand, the leaching potential of the heavy metals in the Namji sediment is comparatively high, because the ratio of the molar concentrations of ΣSEM to AVS is much greater than 1.

Figure 2 shows the speciation patterns of the five metals (Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn, and Ni) in the two sediments. The SEP results show that more than 70% of Ni, Cu, and Zn are present in the fifth fractionation class (residual fraction: most stable). Relatively high concentrations of Pb and Cd were detected from the first through the third fractionation classes (exchangeable, carbonate, reducible), suggesting relatively higher leaching potential than the other heavy metals.

Figure 2. Speciation of the heavy metals in the two sediments determined by the SEP.

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Changes in water chemistry and sulfur speciation of the sediments during resuspension

Figure 3 shows the water quality parameters that are related to leaching and speciation of heavy metals in sediment/water systems. The changes in the water chemistry during the resuspension periods in the experiments on the Namji sediments are substantially different from the changes during the resuspension periods in the experiments on the Gupo sediments. Aqueous phase pH values increased during the resuspension periods in the two experiments; the increase in the pH values in the Gupo experiment was higher (5.9 to 7.7) than that in the Namji experiment (5.7 to 6.9). Generally, oxidation of the natural AVS in the sediments is accompanied by a corresponding increase in H⁺ and concentrations and a substantial decrease in pH, as can be predicted from Eqs. –(3) 25, 29. A decrease in the pH to 1.11 was expected in the case of the Gupo sediment that contained a substantial amount of AVS.

• ((1))

• ((2))

• ((3))

Figure 3. Monitored water quality parameters and sulfur speciation of the sediments during the resuspension experiments. (a) and (b) Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration, oxidation and reduction potential (ORP), and pH of the Namji and Gupo sediments, respectively. (c) and (d) acid volatile sulfide (AVS) concentration, chromium reducible sulfide (CRS) concentration, and aqueous-phase sulfate concentration of the Namji and Gupo sediments, respectively.

However, an increase in the pH was observed in our experiments. This is believed to be due to the buffering action of the components of the sediment as well as because of the bicarbonate that was supplied by atmospheric carbon dioxide (resuspension experiments were conducted in an open system). The alkaline components of the two sediments probably continued to leach out of the sediments during the resuspension, which resulted in the increase of the pH. The TOC concentrations of the Namji and Gupo sediments reduced by 83.1 and 77.0% (results not shown), respectively, within the first 24?h. This reduction in the TOC concentrations indicates that the natural organic matter in the sediments could have acted as a buffer that resisted acidification due to AVS oxidation.

The DO concentration and redox potential of the Namji experiment remained around 8.0?mg/L and 260?mV, respectively, during the resuspension period. On the other hand, the DO concentration and redox potential of the Gupo experiment decreased abruptly within the first 1?min and increased toward the end of the resuspension period. The difference between the DO concentration and redox potential in the earlier period of the experiment on the Namji sediment and those in the earlier period of the experiment on the Gupo sediment reflects the difference between the oxygen demands as well as the redox states of the two sediments. The decrease in DO concentration in the Gupo experiment is attributable to a higher reducing state of the Gupo sediment than the Namji sediment and is also possibly to the enhanced redox buffering by the finer grains of the Gupo sediment 30.

The concentrations of AVS and CRS in the Namji sediment remained relatively unchanged during the resuspension period and the AVS concentration was negligible. However, in the case of the Gupo sediment, a sharp decrease in the AVS concentration from 110?μmol/g to undetectable levels and an increase in the sulfate concentration were observed within the first 3?h. The increase in the sulfate concentration after about 1?min through 48?h is stoichiometrically almost equivalent to the decrease in the AVS concentration. The kinetic limitation in the formation of sulfate is considered to be due to the sequential oxidation reactions that form elemental sulphur from sulfide and then finally sulfate, as in Eqs. {1}–{3}. The first-order rate constant for the oxidation of AVS in the experiment on the Gupo sediment is calculated to be 0.852?h^?1. This rate compares agrees well with the results of the resuspension experiments conducted by Burton et al. 29 in which 50% of AVS oxidation occurred within 25?min.

The CRS concentrations of both Namji and Gupo sediments in the resuspension experiments did not change substantially, which indicates that the CRS in the Namji and Gupo sediments were relatively stable against oxidation. Oxidation of CRS can be described by the two modes of oxidation (Eqs. (4) and (5)) described by Stumm and Morgan 31. The stability of CRS suggests that the sulfate formation was mainly due to the oxidation of AVS.

• ((4))

• ((5))

Changes in aqueous-phase concentrations of heavy metals during resuspension

Relatively small amounts of the heavy metals (Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb) were released into the aqueous phase during the resuspension experiments, as shown in Fig. 4. The total amounts of the released heavy metals ranged from 0.057 to 4.0% of the total amounts of the heavy metals in the sediments. The heavy metals were released gradually in the case of the Namji sediment during the 24-h resuspension period. In contrast, in the case of the Gupo sediment, rapid release of the heavy metals was noticed during the first 6?h and after this period, the amount of heavy metals released into the aqueous phase decreased during the next 6?h. The rapid release of the heavy metals is most likely to be due to the rapid oxidation of the AVS in the Gupo sediment, which is shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 4. Changes in the concentrations of the heavy metals in the aqueous phase during resuspension.

AVS oxidation and the concurrent pH drop can cause desorption of heavy metals from the sediments and can prevent the transfer/resorption of the released heavy metals to the sediments 29, 32, 33. For example, in the study conducted by Burton 29, when the pH value of the resuspension system was reduced to 3.68, the amount of heavy metals released was approximately ten times more than that observed in this study. In our resuspension experiments, the neutral pH conditions during most of the experimental periods are mainly attributable to the limited release of heavy metals despite the reduction in the AVS concentration of the sediments to minimal values.

The temporal maximum concentrations of the heavy metals released into the aqueous phase can be used as references to evaluate the deterioration in the water quality due to resuspension. Table 3 presents the maximum concentration, and the 24-h and 96-h equilibrated concentrations of the heavy metals in the aqueous phases; it also lists the ratios of the maximum amounts of the heavy metals released to the concentrations of the SEM in the solid phase of the Namji and Gupo sediments. The temporal maximum concentrations of Zn in both sediments were more than 110% of the criteria maximum concentration (120?μg/L) of Zn, which is specified in the USEPA national recommended water quality criteria for freshwater 34, and the temporal maximum concentrations of Cd were four to five times the USEPA standard (2?μg/L). However, the aqueous phase concentrations of the heavy metals in the Gupo experiment after 96?h of equilibration were below the USEPA standards because of the resorption of the heavy metals. In the case of the experiment on the Namji sediment in which a gradual release of heavy metals was observed, the temporal maximum concentrations coincide with the equilibrium concentrations.

• a)

  Temporal maximum concentrations of the heavy metals leached.

• b)

  SEM: Simultaneously Extractable Metals.

• c)

  Ratio of the temporal maximum amounts of the heavy metals leached (M.A.L) to the concentration of the SEM.

• d)

  USEPA national recommended water quality criteria for freshwater (criteria maximum concentration, CMC).

• e)

  Water quality guidelines of Australia and New Zealand for the protection of 80% of aquatic species.

When the water quality guidelines followed by Australia and New Zealand for the protection of 80% of aquatic species 35 are applied, the temporal maximum concentrations of Cu, Cd, Pb, Ni, and Zn (except Pb) ranged from 1.7 to 13 times the standard values specified by the guidelines. The results of comparison of the temporal maximum concentrations of the heavy metals with the standard concentrations specified by the water quality guidelines suggest that a resuspension event could cause a temporal deterioration in the water quality and endanger some aquatic species at the Namji and Gupo points.

Table 3 also lists the ratios of the temporal maximum concentrations of the released heavy metals to the concentrations of the SEM. SEM are considered to be relatively easily leachable fractions of the heavy metals. Among the SEM fractions of the heavy metals, Ni and Cd showed a tendency to be released into the aqueous phase more easily than the other heavy metals.

Changes in binding forms of solid phase metals during resuspension

The changes in the binding forms or speciation of the solid phase heavy metals were evaluated by SEP. For both experiments, generally, the binding forms of the heavy metals (exchangeable, carbonate, reducible, organic/sulfide, and residual) did not substantially change during the resuspension periods. This is shown in Fig. 5 for the Namji sediment. Although significant changes are observed in the concentrations of the metals belonging to the first fractionation class of the SEP, the changes in the concentrations of the other metal binding fractions are not substantial. Substantial increases in the concentrations of the first fractionation class are observed over time are observed for Ni, Cu, Zn, and Cd in the experiments on the Namji sediment. The increments were 360% (Ni), 250% (Cu), 474% (Zn), and 172% (Cd). This increase may explain the slow release of the heavy metals from the Namji sediment during the resuspension experiments, which is shown in Fig. 4. The changes in the binding forms of heavy metals from the other phases (fractionation classes) to the first phase could be the reason for the slow release of the heavy metals from the Namji sediment; however, the amount of released heavy metals cannot be determined on the basis of the mass balance of the heavy metals belonging to the five fractionation classes because the amounts of the released heavy metals were insufficient for conducting a precise mass balance analysis.

Figure 5. Changes in the binding forms of the heavy metals during resuspension in the case of the Namji sediment. (F1): Exchangeable; (F2): Carbonate; (F3): Reducible; (F4): Organic/sulfide; (F5): Residual; (Total): Sum of five fractionation phases.

Concluding remarks

Laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the influence of resuspension on the release of heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Pb, Zn, and Ni) and on the water chemistry of oxic (Namji) and anoxic (Gupo) sediments. The concentrations of the heavy metals and other contamination indictors such as AVS were considerably higher in the Gupo sediment than in the Namji sediment. During the resuspension experiments, the changes in the water chemistry and the characteristics of the release/binding of the heavy metals in both the sediments were different.

During resuspension in the case of the Gupo sediment, the DO concentration and redox potential of the water column decreased abruptly within the first 1?min, and increased toward the end of the resuspension period. In the aqueous phase, a continuous increase in pH up to neutral values was observed despite the fact that the sediment contained a substantial amount of AVS that could have caused a decrease in the pH. The heavy metals were released rapidly for the first 6?h probably because of AVS oxidation and the resorption that followed AVS oxidation, and after this, the aqueous phase concentration decreased during the next 6?h. During resuspension in the case of the Namji sediment, the DO concentration and redox potential were relatively stable under the oxic condition. The heavy metals in the Namji sediment were released gradually during the 24-h resuspension period.

The temporal maximum concentrations of Zn and Cd in the aqueous phases of both experiments sediments exceeded the values that satisfy the USEPA water quality criteria. Except for Pb, the temporal maximum concentrations of Ni, Cu, Zn, and Cd were considerably higher than the concentrations specified by the water quality guidelines of Australia and New Zealand for the protection of 80% of aquatic species. These observations suggest that a resuspension event could cause a temporal deterioration in the water quality at the Namji and Gupo points on the Nakdong River, Korea.

Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by the 2010 Core Construction Technology Development Project through ECORIVER21 Research Center in KICTEP of MOCT Korea. It was also supported by the Korean Ministry of Environment as a “Human resource development Project for Waste-to-Energy”.

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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• Kyung-Yup Hwang
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