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综合英语一串讲辅导2

从句
　　从句分为定语从句，状语从句和名词从句三大类。定语从句又分为限定性和非限定性从句两种，由关系代词或关系副词引导，修饰主句的某个成分。状语从句分为时间、结果、让步原因、条件及行为方式状语从句。名词从句包括主语、宾语、表语和同位语从句及 there be 句型。
1. 定语从句
　　限定性定语从句中 that 可代表人和事，而 which 只代表事；二者在从句中作主语或宾语。 that 作宾语时常可省略， which 则不能，而且其后的 “ 不及物动词 + 介词 ” 中的介词不能省略。 which 作宾语时，先行词与 which 之间的介词不能省。例如：
　　The first doll that could say “mama”was invented in 1830.
The second half of his voyage was by far the more dangerous part, during （不能省） which he sailed round the Cape Horn.
代表 all, anything, something, nothing, much 等词时，用 that 而不用 which ， that 作宾语可省略。例如：
You'd better do something he prefers to do to please him.
That is the last time we met each other.
I came across the woman you told me about yesterday.
who 和 whom 引导的从句用来修饰人，分别作从句的主语和宾语。 where 是关系副词，用于表示地点的定语从句，而 when 用来表示时间。 whose 是关系代词，修饰名词作定语。例如：
Henrey Ford is the person who is most responsible for developing the idea of mass production.
The knee is the joint where the thigh bone meets the large bone of the lower leg.
The next morning when she came down to breakfast, Mary was beaming with the pleasure ( 眉飞色舞 , 笑逐颜开 )of a new, great discovery.
The visiting professor is a famous scientist whose son studies in my department.
在下列情况，限定性定语从句的关系代词可以省略； 1 ）当关系代词在从句中作宾语或表语；或它们在从句中作介词的宾词，而该介词又在句末时； 2 ）当先行词是 that, all, only, everything, something, nothing 等代词时，或先行词前有一个最高级形容词修饰时； 3 ）当先行词前有 only, any, all, first, no, last 等修饰时，或先行词就是 time, moment, way(any-way) direction, distance 等名词时，关系代词即可省略。例如：
The delegation we has been waiting for finally arrived
I met the woman you told me about.
She gave me all she could afford.
With TV we can see things happen almost at the exact moment they are happening.
非限定性定语从句，其作用为：对所修饰的成分作进一步的说明，它与主句用逗号隔开。此类从句省略后其余部分仍可成立。在非限定性定语从句中， which 可代表前面的整个句子；代表人时只能用 who, whom, 而不能用 that; as 也可用作关系代词。例如：
The telephone, as we know, was the invention of Alexander Graham Bell.
The Little White House in Warm Springs was the Georgia home of President Franklin D.Roosevelt, who died there on April 12,1945.
Living in a damp house for a long time is harmful to one's health, which is known to everyone.
2. 状语从句
状语从句可分为：时间状语从句（主要由 when, whenever, after, before, as, since, once, as soon as, until, while ） so……that such……that though, although, no matter, even if however, whatever as, because, since for is, whether, as long as, provided that where as
The small greenish flowers of the elm tree appear in the spring, long before the leaves grow.
Qiong Yao's novels used to be so popular that her books appeared on best seller lists.
Gas balloon is less safe than hot balloon because it may catch fire.
Uniform acceleration( 同样的加速 )occurs if the rate of change remains the same over successive equal intervals of time.
Thousands of Chinese college students went to the US Consulate in Shanghai, where they protested NATO's bombing at China's Embassy in Yugoslavia.
状语从句的中 “ 主语 +be” 可以省略，前提是，从句主语和主句主语一致，且从句谓语 “be” 省略后的结构为 “ 连词 + 现在分词 / 过去分词 / 介词短词 / 形容词 / 名词短语 ” 。例如：
When well fitted ， glasses can correct most sight defects in healthy eyes.
If necessary, I would like to see you in your office.
Although seriously wounded, he never complained
3. 名词从句
名词从名包括主语从句、宾语从句，其中有介词与形容词的宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。
1 ）主语从句
主语从句常出现在 “it is + 名词、形容词、分词 + 主语从句 ” 的形式中。例如：
It is reported that Taiwanese pop singer Meng Tingwei will hold a solo concert in Shanghai someday this month.
It must be pointed out that you have failed to meet the deadline.
It usually happened that I was late because of traffic jams.
主语从句还可用 when, where, how, why, whether 等连接副词，和 who ， whom ， whose ， what ， which ， whoever ， whatever ， whichever 等连接代词来引起。例如：
How to arrange the meeting is not your task.
Whose candidate will win the election is the question both political parties are asking.
When I leave is my own decision.
Whoever will go to the party won't change my mind of staying at home.
2 ）宾语从句
宾语从句可由 that, 疑问代词或副词 how, why 和 where 等引出。例如：
To postpone the conference until next month indicated that they were unprepared.
Nearly all the staff agreed with what I said.

Everyone worried about her because no one was aware of where she had gone.
Could you offer more details except that it happened at night?
由 what, whether, how 引导的宾语从句可用在介词后，而由 that 引导的从句只跟 but, besides, except, in, save 之后。例如：
I can hardly believe in what they have done.
He doesn't know my phone number except that the city code is 021.
一些表语性的形容词，如： alarmed, amazed, annoyed, astonished, certain, confident, disappointed, glad, pleased, proud, sad, shocked, sure, surprised, worried, ect. 作表语时，后面可跟由 that, how 等引导的宾语从句。例如：
I was amazed how he could pass the exam without attending the lectures.
He is confident that he will pass the Band 6 examination.
She was surprised how simple his problem was.
We are all pleased that he will be able to pass the final examination.
3 ）表语从句
表语从句对主语的内容起解释和阐述的作用；若表语从句用 that 引起， that 起连接作用，不能省略。表语从句也可用连接词 how, when, where, why, what 引起。由 because 引起的表语从句通常只用在 “this/that/it is because” 结构中。例如：
On thing I admire most about them is that they are hospitable.
She works too hard. That is why she is exhausted.
I must point out that where you intend to build a super-market is where the elderly do exercise everyday.
4 ）同位语从句
同位语从句是由两个或两上以上同一层次语言单位组成的结构，其中前项与后项所指相同，句法功能相同。同位词从句由 that 引导，也可由 whether, how, why, where, when 等来引导。例如：
She ignored the teacher's instruction that she must study hard.
The question whether or not I should help him in such a case troubled me greatly.
动词不定式
1. 不定式的基本形式与结构
动词不定式指通常由 to 加上动词原形（如 ro write ）所构成的一种非限定性动词形式，但在有些情况下 to 可以省略。动词不定式有进行体和完成体（如 to be writing, to have written ）也有被动态（如 to be write ），所有的主动词，不论是及物动词还是不及物动词，也不论是动作动词还是状态动词，都有不定式形态。助动词除 be 和 have 外，没有不定式形式。动词不定式在语法功能上可作主语、宾语、表语、定语和状语。
2. 不定式的用法
1 ）不定式结构作主语
To get contact with family in Taiwan made him extremely happy since they separated more than 40 years ago.
To finish that task in such a short time is really a challenge.
在上述情况下，如果不定式较长，显得头重脚轻，则可由代词 it 作形式主语（形式主语 it 不可由 that 或 this 等其他代词代替），而将不定式放在后面。如：
It made him extremaly happy to get contact with his family in Taiwan since they separated more than 40 years ago.
John admitted that it is always difficult for him to be on time.
不定式结构所表示的动作是谁做的，即不定式的逻辑主语，通常可以通过 for sb.to do sth. 结构表达。
It is quite important for us to read good books during a general review.
It is not difficult f or those talented students to pass the exam.
在某些形容词（如： careless, clever, considerate, foolish, good, impolite, kind, naughty, nice, silly, stupid 等）作表语时，不定式后可以加 of 来引导出其逻辑主语：
It is very kind of you to tell me the truth.
It is stupid of him to do such a silly thing.
2 ）不定式作宾语
不定式作宾语有两种：一种是及物动词后直接跟带 to 的不定式，另一种是 “ 及物动词 + 疑问句 + 带 to 的不定式 ” 。
及物动词 + 带 to 的不定式结构： 只能跟动词不定式的动词，常见的有：
afford, agree, aim, appear, ask, believe,?care, claim, ecide,demand,desire,determine,expect,fail,happen,hesitate,hope,intend,learn,long,manage,offer,pretend,promise,prepare,refuse,seek,sweat,
undertake,want,wish 等。（须记住） He managed to solve the complicated problem
The stranger offered to show me the way.
Mr.Smith undertook to build a new plant in South Africa.
动词 + 疑问代（副）词 + 不定式：这类动词常见的有： advise, decide, discuss, find out, forget, inquire ,know, learn, regard, remember, see, teach, tell, understand, wonder 等。常用的疑问代（副）词有 what, when, where, which, how, whether 等，但不包括 why 。
He does not know when to start.
You can decide whether to continue or to stop.
I will show you how to deal with it.
有时，不定式可由 it 代替，而把不定式放到后面去。这可以用这一结构表达：动词（如 find, think, consider, feel 等） +it+ 形容词 + 不定式。
She considers it necessary to make friends with them.
We find it difficult to finish all the homework before 9 o'clock.

3 ）不定式作表语
一般情况为主语是不定式（表示条件），表词也是不定式（表示结果）：
To see is to believe. To work means to earn a living.
另一种情况为主语是 aim, duty, hope, idea, job, plan, problem, purpose, thing, wish 等名词为中心的短语，或以 what 引导的名词性从句，不定式表语对主语起补充说明作用：
His aim is to study abroad in the near future.
The most important thing is to negotiate with them about the problem.
What I want to say is to forget all the unhappy experience.
4 ）不定式作定语
不定式结构作名词词组修饰语主要有三种类型：
第一种，被修饰的名词词组是不定式的逻辑宾语。例如：
There was really nothing to fear. He gave me an interesting book to read.
如果不定式是不及物动词，后面就得加相应的介词。例如：
Mary needs a friend to play with. That girl has nothing to worry about.
They have a strict teacher to listen to .
Although the film had been on for ten minutes, I still was not able to find a chair to sit on.
第二种，被修饰的名词词组是不定式的逻辑主语。例如：
Have you got a key to unlock door?
The action to be taken is correct.
There is nothing to be gained by pretending.
第三种，被修饰的名词词组是不定式的同位结构。这类名词通常是表示企图、努力、倾向、目的、愿望、打算、能力、意向等意义的名词，如 ability, attempt, effort, impulse, inclination, wish 等。例如：
Her daughter will make an even bigger effort to please her.
I have no wish to quarrel with you.
Neither of them had any inclination to do business with Mary.
（ 5 ）不定式作状语
不定式结构在句中作状语通常都能转换为限制性状语从句。例如作原因状语：
They are quite surprised to see the great changes taking place in the area.
=They are quite surprised because they see the great changes taking place in the area.
He was lucky to arrive before dark.
作目的状语：
She raised her voice to be heard better. =She raised her voice so that she could be heard better.
We went via Heidelberg to miss the traffic jam.
=We went via Heidelberg so that we could miss the fraffic jam.
作结果状语：
The French football team played so successfully that they even defeated the Brazilians.
He got to the station only to be told the train had gone.
=He got to the station and was told that the train had gone.
3. 不带 to 的不定式的使用
动词不定式通常带 to ，但有些搭配中不带 to ，在另一些搭配中可带 to 可不带 to 。归纳起来，以下情况下使用不带 to 不定式：
1 ）在 can/could, may/might, will/would, shall/should, must, need, dare 等情态动词之后，动词不定式不带 to 。
2 ）在表示感觉意义的动词，如 see, feel, watch, notice, smell, hear, observe 等后，或是表示 “ 致使 ” 意义的动词，如 have, let, make 等后，动词不定式不带 to 。例如： I often heard him say that he would study hard.
I must have him see his own mistakes.
但是，当这类结构转移为被动语态时，后面的不带 to 不定式一般转换为带 to 不定式。
例如： He was often heard to say that be would study hard.
After he had finished the speaking, he was made to answer innumerable questions.
3 ）在动词 help 之后可用不带 to 和不定式，也可用带 to 的不定式。例如：
help the old lady(to)carry the heavy box.
4 ）在 had better, would rather, may/might as well, rather than, cannot but 等搭配之后，动词不定式也不带 to 。例如：
Unless you feel too ill to go out, I would rather not stay at home tonight.
She could not but criticize his foolish behaviour.
5 ）在 make do, make believe, let drop, let fall, let fly, let slip, let drive, let go off, hear, say, hear tell, leave go of 等固定搭配中，用不带 to 的动词不定式。例如：
They let go off the rope 。他们松开了绳子。
John let fly a torrent of abuse at me 。约翰朝我痛骂了一顿。
I've heard tell of him 。我听说过他。
Some of the faculty were let go for lack of the students. 由于生源不足，一些教职员工被解雇了。
6 ）在介词 but, except 之后，如果其前有动词 do 的某种形式，其后不定式一般不带 to ，反之则必须带 to ，表示 “ 不得不，只能 ” 。例如：
He will do anything except work on the farm.
There was nothing left for the enemy to do but surrender.
The spy was both hungry and cold; there was nothing left for him but to give in.
I had no choice but to wait till it stopped raining.
下面一些短语是固定搭配，不带 to ：
can not help but, can not choose but, can not but, do nothing but, have nothing to do but 。例如：
I can not but admire his courage.
如果上述句中有 do ， to 省略：
I did nothing but watch TV last night.
如果是下面一个固定搭配，就带 to ：
I have no choice but to give up my idea.

7 ）紧跟在 why 或 why not 之后的动词不定式总是不带 to 。但是，紧跟 who, what,
which, whether 等连接词后的不定式带 to 。例如：
Why stand up if you can sit down?
Why not ask your teacher when you don't understand the meaning?
You needn ' t decide yet whether to study arts or science.
4 不定式的完成式和进行式
1 ）构成
完成式： to+have done
进行式： to+be doing
2 ）用法
完成式：如果不定式所表示的动作（状态）发生在主要谓语动作之前，那么不定式就要用其完成式。
进行式：如果主要谓语动作（情况）发生时，不定式所表示的动作正在发生，那么不定式就要用其进行式。例如： She feels relaxed to have finished writing her thesis before the deadline.
The Vikings are believed to have discovered America.
When you called me last night, I happened to be working on the computer.
5. 不定式的被动形式
当不定式的逻辑主语是动作的承受者时，不定式要用被动形式，包括它的一般式和完成式。例如：
The snow was supposed to have blown off the mountain.
6. 不定式的否定形式
否定形式是在不定式的标志 to 前加 not 。例如：
I decided not to ask him again.
Please remember not to leave the lights on when are out.
动名词
1. 动名词的形式
　　动名词是由动词原形 +-ing 构成（如 writing) ，有完成时态和被动语态（如 having written, being written) 。
2. 动名词的用法
　　动名词通常在句中作主语和宾语。
　　1 ）动名词作主语
　　Going to the college is the little boy's dream.
　　Keeping studying hard will make you pass the exam.
　　2 ）动名词作宾语
　　有些动词后面只能带动名词作宾语，不能带不定式作宾语。此类动词常见的有： admit, acknowledge, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, consider ,contemplate, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike ,ensure, enjoy, escape, excuse, evade, facilitate, fancy, favour, finish, forbid, imagine, include, keep, mind, miss, postpone, practise, resent, resist, risk, suggest, quit, worth 等。例如：
　　John was considering buying a new car.
　　I hope you didn't contemplate coming with us on this trip.
　　The witness denied having seen the accused man.
　　I would appreciate your keeping it a secret.
　　3) 某些短语后面只能接动名词，不能接不定式。
　　此类短语常见的有： be(get)used to be accustomed to, be dedicated to, be devoted to, be busy, be committed to, be subject to, cannot help, cannot resist, cannot stand, confess to, feel like, give up, have trouble(in), have difficulty(in), have a good/have time(in), have fun(in), have an objection to, it is no good/use, keep on, insist on, look forward to, object to , pay attention to, put off, resort to, succeed in 等。例如：
I cannot stand getting up early in the morning.
I have no difficulty(in) reaching the top of the mountain.
There is no use staying on.
I cannot resist (his)bargaining.
Although punctual himself, the professor was quite used to students' being late for his lecture.
4 ）动词或短语后面也可以接动名词的被动形式。用主动形式还是被动形式，要根据包子的意思而定。例如：
Carlos just missed being caught.
That person wore dark glasses to avoid being recognized.
I object to being treated like a child.
3. 另一类动词后面可以带动名词作宾语，也可以带不定式作宾语。这类动词又可以分为两种：
1 ）带动名词作宾语与带不定式作宾语而意义无多大区别的动词
a ）在 begin, cannot bear, cease, continue, dread, like, love, neglect, omit, propose 等动词之后，如表示一般的行为，用动名词作宾语为多；如表示特定的或具体的动作，则不定式结构作宾语为多。例如：
I don't like swimming.
I don't like to swim this afternoon.
John prefers doing it his way.
John prefers to go outing tomorrow.
b ）在 begin, start 等动词之后，如表示有意的动作，用动名词结构为多；如表示特定的或具体的动作，则用不定式结构作宾语为多。例如：
After some hesitation, he began speaking out his own opinion.
It has already begun to rain.
c ）在 attempt, intend, plan 等动词之后，用不定式结构与动名词结构意义相同，但以用不定式较为常见。例如：
He intended to buy a new car.
He intended travelling abroad next summer.
d ）在 encourage, permit, allow, recommend, advise, authorise 等动词之后，一般用动名词作宾语，或者用不定式作宾语补足语。即：
encourage/permit/allow/recommend/advise/
authorise+doing,encourage/permit/allow/recommend/
advise/authorise+somebody+to do
例如：
He advised going out for a walk.
He advised us to go out for a walk.
e ）在 agree, decide 等动词之后，可以直接跟不定式结构， 但如果跟动名词，则动词后必须加适当的介词。例如：
In the end the manager decided to double the advertising budget.
=In the end the manager decided on doubling the advertising budget.
f ）在 need, want, require, deserve 等动词之后，可以用 动名词的主动形式表示被动 意义，这相当于不定式的被动形式。例如：
The house needs repairing.
=The house needs to be erpaired.
The disabled deserve respecting.
=The disabled decerve to be respected.
2 ）带动名词作宾语与带不定式作宾语而意义不同的动词
a ）动词 remember, forget 后可以跟不定式或动名词，但意义有明显区别：跟动名词，其动作发生在 “ 记得 ” 或 “ 忘记 ” 的动作之前；跟不定式，其动作发生在 “ 记得 ” 或 “ 忘记 ” 的动作之后。试比较：
I remember posting this letter. 我记得这封信已寄出了。
I remember to post this letter in the afternoon. 我记得下午要将这封信寄走。
b ）动词 regret 后可以跟不定式或动名词，但意义有明显区别：
regret doing: 为做过的事感到抱歉
regret to do ：为即将要做的事感到抱歉
试比较： I regret to say that I can not go with you after school.
I regret having criticised you seriously in class.
c ）动词 try, mean, cannot help, used to 后跟不定式还是动名词，取决于这些词本身的含义。例如：
You should try to answer the questions by yourself.(Try to d 试着做某事 )
We try using this new method.(Try doing ：试着做某事 )
I meant to go to the exhibition but I forgot(mean to do ：打算做某事 )
Success means working very hard.(mean doing: 意味着做某事 )
I can't help apologizing.(cannot help doing: 忍不住做某事 )
I can't help to apologize for him.(cannot help to d 不能帮助做某事 )
Mr.Smith used to jog in the morning, but now he has stopped.(used to d 过去经常或总是干某事 )
Inland canals are used to ship farm and factory goods to nearby towns.(be used to d 被用来干某事 )
I am not used to getting up early in the morning.(be/get used to doing: 惯于干某事 )
d ）动词 stop, continue, go on, leave off 之后，通常用动名词结构作宾语，如果用不定式结构，则不是宾语而是目的状语，相当于 in order to 。试比较：
They stopped working 。他们停止工作（来做其他事）。
They stopped to work 。他们停止（帮其他事）来工作。
The students went on reciting the text. 学生们继续背诵课文。
The students went on to recite the text. 学生们停下其他事，继续背诵课文。
She left off doing the housework. 她停止做家务（去干其他事）。
She left off to do the housework. 她停止（干其他事）来做家务。