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Women have made huge progress in the workplace, but still get lower pay and far fewer top jobs than men. Barbara Beck asks why

女性地位在职场中取得了长足的提高。但是，与男性相比，女性薪水依然较低，担任高层的机会较少。芭芭拉试图探讨背后的原因。

Nov 26th 2011 | from the print edition

2011-1-26

WHEN HILDA SOLIS was at high school, a male career adviser told her mother that the girl was not college material; she should consider becoming a secretary. Hilda was furious. One of seven children born to working-class immigrant parents, she had high ambitions. She did go to college, became a lawmaker in California and is now secretary of labour, the first Latina to hold a cabinet post in America’s federal government.

希尔达·索利斯上高中时，一位男性职业顾问曾对她妈妈说，她不是读大学的材料，她该考虑如何做好一个秘书。这彻底激怒了希尔达。作为工薪阶层移民家庭中七个孩子的一个，她自小抱负远大。最终，她还是上了大学，毕业后加入加利福利亚立法委员会。现在，她已经是劳工部长，也是第一位拉丁裔美国联邦政府内阁成员。

On Tarja Halonen’s first day at work in the legal department of a trade union she answered the phone to a man who, hearing a female voice, asked to speak to one of the lawyers. She informed him that he was speaking to one. Things got better after that. Following her stint as a lawyer she served in Finland’s parliament for over 20 years. Since 2000 she has been the country’s president, the first female in the job.

塔里娅·哈洛宁在工会的法务部上班的第一天接到一个男人的电话，当他听到电话的女声的时候，他马上要求将电话转给其他男性律师。塔里娅告诉他，她就是一位律师。自那之后，情况有所改善。担任律师一段时间后，她进入芬兰国会任职了20多年。2000年，她成功当选芬兰总统，成为芬兰历史上的第一位女性总统。

In this special report

Closing the gap

The cashier and the carpenter

A world of bluestockings

Baby blues

Too many suits

The sky’s the limit

Here’s to the next half-century

Sources & acknowledgements

Reprints

Related topics

Europe

China

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

Josef Ackermann

United States

美国

Both these incidents happened in the 1970s. They would be much less likely today, partly because political correctness has made people more cautious (not least thanks to a series of high-profile sex-discrimination court cases) but mainly because attitudes really have changed. Josef Ackermann, the chief executive of Deutsche Bank, caused a storm earlier this year when he said that appointing women to the bank’s executive board (which currently has none) would make it “prettier and more colourful”. A German government minister, Ilse Aigner, advised Mr Ackermann to look for pretty and colourful things in a field of flowers or a museum. 

这两个案例都发生在20世纪70年代。在今天不太可能发生这样的事。不仅仅是因为政治敏感性使得人们更谨慎地对待这一议题（尤其多亏了一系列备受瞩目的性别歧视司法判例），更重要的是，观念已经彻底改变。德意志银行首席执行长瑟夫?阿科尔曼今年初掀起一场风暴，因为他说，女性委员的存在使执行委员会亮丽多彩。德国的消费部长伊尔莎·爱格纳建议阿科尔曼还是在花园和博物馆找找其他亮丽多彩的东西吧。

一项新的举措正加深这些观念的变化。包括联合国、经济合作和发展组织（OECD）、世界银行在内的国际组织更加关注女性地位。一些欧洲国家提出在公司决策层引入女性的配额，其他国家也会逐渐跟进。每一个自重的公司、银行、咨询公司和猎头公司，都发起行动方案，强学术研究和举行研讨会议以最大化开发女性潜力。这些努力是否还需要呢？

In many emerging markets women remain second-class citizens, lacking basic rights and suffering violence and many kinds of disadvantage. In the rich world most of the battles about legal and political rights have been won, and on the economic front too women have come a long way. It is easy to forget that even in developed countries they arrived in strength in the labour force only a few decades ago. Since 1970 the proportion of women of working age who have paid jobs across the rich world has risen from 48% to 64% (see chart). There are large variations from country to country: in parts of southern and eastern Europe only about half of them go out to work, whereas in most of the Nordic countries well over 70% have jobs, close to the figure for men. In America for a while early last year more women were working than men—until the recession caught up with them. But the broad trend in most countries is still slightly upwards.

在很多新兴市场，女性就像二等公民，基本权利无法保障，遭到暴力等其他歧视待遇。在富裕国家，法定和政治权利的斗争取得了巨大的胜利，但在经济前线，女性也取得了长足的进步。我们总是忘记，就算在发达国家，女性大量跻身职场也是近几十年的事。自70年代以来，发达国家处于工作年龄的女性得到有薪工作的比例从48%上升到64%。当然，国与国之间差异较大；在欧洲南部和东部，只有大概一半女性就业，而北欧国家超过70%女性身在职场，与男性相差不多。在美国去年年初甚至职场女性比男性还多，直到经济危机有所缓解。从整体看，大多数国家女性就业机会的确正在缓慢增加。

Claudia Goldin, an economics professor at Harvard who has studied American women’s employment history over the past century or so, calls the mass arrival of women in the workplace in the 1970s a “quiet revolution”. Of course there have always been women who worked outside the home, but the numbers were much smaller. Until the 1920s working women were mostly young and single and had jobs in factories or as domestic servants that required little education. From the 1930s onwards many more girls went to high school and college and got jobs in offices where conditions were much more agreeable. In the 1950s large numbers of married women took up work as secretaries, teachers, nurses, social workers and so on, often part-time. By the 1970s their daughters, having watched their mothers go off to work, took it for granted that they would do the same.

Many of them had also seen their parents get divorced, which made having an income of their own seem like a wise precaution. And they had the Pill, which for the first time in history provided them with reliable birth control. That allowed them to embark on a career first and leave marriage and children until later. It also made it worthwhile to invest more in their education. By 1980 American women were graduating from college in the same numbers as men and have since overtaken them by a significant margin. What happened in America was echoed, to a greater or lesser degree, in most other industrial countries. The dual-income couple was born.

研究上个世纪以来女性就业的历史的哈佛经济教授克劳蒂亚·戈尔丁，称上世纪70年代大规模女性就业是一场悄无声息的革命。虽然一直以来总有一些职业女性，但是数量很少。在1920年之前，一般只有单身年轻女性能工作，领域也局限于不需高学历的工厂岗位或者保姆之类。自1930年以来，很多女孩完成高中甚至大学教育，更多女性能在环境明显改善的办公室工作。在50年代，大量已婚妇女也担任秘书、教师、护士、社会工作者等，不过一般兼职。到70年代，她们的女儿，自小看着她们的母亲上班，视工作为理所当然。

有些在离异家庭长大地女性，认识到有一定的经济基础不失为一个明智的预防措施。而且口服避孕药的出现，使女性有史以来可以控制生育。这让她们可以先发展事业，然后才考虑结婚生子。这也使教育投资更值得。到80年代，大学女性毕业生已经与男性毕业生持平，至那之后，女性毕业生甚至大幅度多于男性。其他工业国家也与美国类似，只不过程度可能不一样。同时，双收入夫妇出现。

This has been a great boon to all concerned. National economies benefited from the boost in growth provided by many extra workers acquired over a relatively short period without the trouble and expense of rearing them or the upheaval of importing them. Employers enjoyed a wider choice of employees who, despite equal-pay legislation, were often cheaper and more flexible than men. And women themselves gained the freedom to pursue a wide range of careers, financial independence and much greater control over their lives.

这对所有人都是一件好事。国家经济因此获得长足增长，因为在短时期内无需增加抚养成本和因输入劳动力引起动乱，就为济增长提供了额外的劳动力。雇主也可以选择更便宜和灵活的女性雇员，尽管有种种男女工资平等的立法，他们依然可以付出比雇佣男性更少的工资成本。女性也因此有追求更广阔的人生自由，经济独立和对人生更多控制权。

Back in the 1990s women in rich countries seemed to be heading towards a golden era. Now there is a palpable sense of frustration

在90年代，发达国家似乎迎来女性的黄金时期。但是，现在之声失望之意。

These additional workers are spending money, paying taxes and making the economy go round. No wonder policymakers everywhere are trying to encourage even more women to take up paid work to boost output. A further reason to welcome them is that in many developed countries, as well as in China, falling birth rates have started to cause working populations to shrink and the number of elderly people to rise steeply, with ominous consequences for economies in general and pensions in particular. More working women could help offset the decline in the labour force.

这些额外的劳动力扩大了消费，增加了税收，促进经济发展。难怪各国政策制定者总是鼓励女性走上职场，以此来促进社会生产力的发展。更重要的是，在很多发达国家，包括发展中的中国，生育率的降低使劳动力减少和老龄化加重，给经济带来不利影响尤其是养老金负担加重。更多女性劳动力能缓解劳动力资源不足的问题。

Womenomics

女性经济学

Perhaps surprisingly, there is little work on the macroeconomic effect of all the extra women who have entered the labour force over the past four decades, but McKinsey reckons that America’s GDP is now about 25% higher than it would have been without them. Kevin Daly at Goldman Sachs, an investment bank, has calculated that eliminating the remaining gap between male and female employment rates could boost GDP in America by a total of 9%, in the euro zone by 13% and in Japan by as much as 16%. Since not even the equality-conscious Nordics have yet managed to get rid of the employment gap altogether, it seems unlikely that gains on this scale will be realised in the foreseeable future, if ever, but there is certainly scope for improvement in some rich countries and even more in emerging markets. In the BRICs and other fast-growing developing countries the gap is already narrowing.

或许有些出人意料，过去80年女性的进入职场对宏观经济影响并不大。但是，就如麦肯锡咨询公司估算，美国GDP比若没有女性就业高了近25%。高盛(Goldman Sachs)的凯文·达利估算，若男女职场不平等能够克服，美国GDP能因此提升9%，欧元区能提高13%，日本能提高16%。而就算是非常注重职场男女平等的北欧，也无法完全去除性别歧视，所以这些估算在可预见预期内很难完全实现。但在一些发达国家会有所改善，新兴市场改善空间更大。在金砖四国和其他快速发展的发展中国家，职场男女的差距已经在减小。

Employers too have reason to be grateful for the boost to their labour force from the extra women, not least because talented people are in short supply the world over. Since women make up half the talent pool (though their interests and preferences are often different from men’s, of which more later), getting more of them into work should help alleviate the shortage, all the more so since there are now more university-educated women than men in most rich countries (and some emerging ones too).

雇主真的应该感谢劳动力市场有了这些职场女性，因为全世界人才市场都紧缺。女性至少在人才库占一半，（尽管她们的兴趣和爱好跟男性有些差异)，让更多女性进入职场可以缓解人才紧缺，尤其现在很多发达国家，女性大学毕业生比男性还多（在一些发展中国家也是如此。)

A number of studies have shown that the presence of a critical mass of women in senior jobs is positively correlated with a company’s performance and possibly with higher profits. None of them has demonstrated a causal link, but it is not 鞥多女性implausible that companies will benefit from a more diverse workforce with a broader set of ideas. Many of their customers are probably female. In Europe and America women decide on 70-80% of all household purchases and strongly influence buying decisions even for items such as cars and computers that are generally seen as male preserves.

一些研究表明，决策层女性占关键多数可能和公司业绩改善、利润提高有关。虽然这些研究并没有说明其中的因果关系，但是至少多样的人才使公司呈现多样的理念，让公司从中受益。因为很多顾客可能就是女性。在美国和欧洲，家庭购物七八十都是由女性做主，就算在一些传统由男性拿主意的购物上，例如车和电脑，女性的意见也很重要。

For women themselves it has been liberating to be able to choose almost any kind of career. If they wish (and can find a husband who will support them), they are still free to devote themselves to full-time child care and domestic duties—unlike men, who rarely have that choice. But these days most of them, for reasons ranging from money to the desire for self-fulfilment, want to work outside the home.

现在女性已经基本可以自由地选择任何职业。如果她们愿意（当然丈夫支持的话），她们也可以选择做全职太太，而男人一般没有这个选择。但最近一些年，为了赚钱和个人价值的实现，女性一般选择工作。

They have made great strides in all kinds of careers, but they still find it much harder than men to bag the most senior jobs. The picture is much the same everywhere: men and women fresh out of college or university are being recruited in roughly equal numbers; half-way up the ladder a lot of the women have already dropped out; and at the top there are hardly any left. The rate of attrition in the middle ranks has slowed a bit in recent years, but the most senior jobs remain almost exclusively male. Women make up just 3% of Fortune 500 CEOs.

虽然在很多行业女性地位突飞猛进，但是在与男性竞争高级职位时，仍处于相对劣势。世界各地都有这个现象：刚毕业时，男女就业数量差不多，但在职业生涯的中期，近乎一半的女性落下了，到职业的顶端，基本只剩下男的了。中等职位的竞争今年来有所减弱，但是高级职位依然基本由男性主宰。财富五百强的总裁中就只有3%是女性。

And despite sheaves of equal-pay legislation, women get paid less than men for comparable work. That is partly because they often work in different fields, and many of them are part-timers with lower hourly rates. But even in identical jobs they earn slightly less than men from the beginning, and as time goes by the gap gets ever bigger. Across the OECD it now averages 18%. That is a lot less than what it was 40 years ago (see chart), but in recent years it has stopped narrowing.

尽管同工同酬立法不断出台，女性仍然在相同工作中获得相对较少的工资。部分原因是，男女职业领域不一样，女性也更倾向于小时工资低的兼职工作。可就算同一份工作，女性一开始的工资可能就略低，随着时间推移，差距可能不断扩大。在经济合作与发展组织，现在平均差距是18%。相比40年前，这个差距已经缩小很多了，但是，今年减少趋势趋缓。

Back in the 1990s women in rich countries seemed to be heading towards a golden era. They were continuing to move into the workforce in ever-increasing numbers, more opportunities were opening up for them and the pay gap with men was getting smaller. Now there is a palpable sense of frustration. Catching up with men, particularly at the top, seems to be taking much longer than expected. At the same time women in some of the richer emerging markets seem to be pushing ahead. In China the numbers in senior positions are rising across the board, and in India women are getting top jobs in the crucial IT industry.

在90年代，发达国家似乎迎来女性的黄金时期。那时，更多的女性进入职场，也有更多的工作岗位向她们敞开，男女工资差距也在减小。现在，却是明显的挫败感。和男性在竞争，尤其是在高层，一如既往地困难。但是，在较为发达的新兴市场中，女性地位仍不断提高。在中国，决策层中女性有所增加，印度女性也在竞争激烈的IT行业的高层中有一席之地。

This special report will explore the reasons why progress in the rich world seems to have stalled and what can be done about it. It will start by explaining what sort of work women do, and why that matters.

这个特别报告主要是探讨近年发达国家职场女性地位的提高进程放缓的原因以及解决的方法。报告以介绍职场女性一般的工作领域和解释这个问题的重要性开始。